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Questionnaire

1. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING ITEMS IN 25 WORDS OR LESS

* Monosaccharides .- Organic compounds in which two carbon atoms are linked by a double bond. This is the case of a fatty acid.

* Aldosa .- If the carbonyl group is at the end of the chain is an aldehyde group (-CHO) .-
* chiral center is obtained when a central atom and four atoms individual or groups of atoms are joined by one tetrahedral molecular geometry.

* diastereomers .- stereoisomers class they do not have a mirror image between them * Cetohexosa .- has a carbon-reduction unit 2. The linear form of this hexose is in equilibrium with the corresponding forms pyranoses and furans.

* Furans .- has 5 atoms, by analogy with the structure of the furan heterocycle

* .- cyclic hemiacetal condensation of aldehyde groups and hydroxyl group, resulting for the formation of furan and pyran

* Central .- anomeric carbon that carried the carbonyl group is converted to the ring in a molecule asymmetric, called the anomeric carbon

.- * Reducing sugar are those with a free carbon in its structure and can reduce the copper salts.

.- * Chitin is a polysaccharide of N-acetyl glucosamine, linked together with each beta 1-4 * carbohydrates .- A set of molecules in which there is a sugar

* Intolrancia Disease .- lactose milk consumption with lactose * homopolysaccharides .- polymer formed by a single type of waste

* .- glycogen granule highly branched chain of the same

* mucopolysaccharide .- polysaccharide containing a single type of mucosa .-
* Lectin protein that is attached by the presence of a only the latter type of sugar should be specific

* link link .- monosaccharides glycosidically through Oxygen

* .- Protein glycoprotein attached to a carbohydrate chain carbon

* sialic acid .- neuramico acid derivatives, are distributed in the tissues of vertebrate animals and bacteria isolated in some layers

2.DIBUJA FAMILY STRUCTURES OF THE MONOSACCHARIDES Trios

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

3. CHIRAL CENTERS HOW MANY HAVE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING MONOSACCHARIDES? Dihydroxyacetone
------------- 1

Ribosa -------------------------4

Eritrulosa ----------------------2

Glucosamina ------------------4

Fructosa -----------------------3

Seudoheptulosa --------------4

2-Desoxirribosa----------------2

6-desoxiglucosa --------------4

--------- N-acetylglucosamine 4

------------------ 6 sialic acid

4.USING PROJECTION METHOD FOR THE FOLLOWING MONOSACCHARIDES FISCHER:
A) D-Glyceraldehyde

b) L-Ribose

c) D-Mannose

5) USES OF FISCHER PROJECTION METHOD FOR DRAWING THE ENANTIOMERS DYL OF GLUCOSE
L-GLUCOSE

D-GLUCOSE

6) Fehling Reagent LABORATORY IS USED TO SHOW THE PRESENCE OF A reducing sugar to complete the analysis, add CU2 +. TEST POSITIVE TO SHOW THAT IT IS A reducing sugar is a precipitate of cupric oxide CARBS WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WOULD TEST POSITIVE, THE NO reacts with the reagent Fehling?
a) glucose
b) ribose-5-phosphate
c) trehalose
d) lactose e. SUCROSE
f) maltose
7) study the structures of the compounds and lists the functional groups present each MOLECULE
a) Glyceraldehyde ------ ALDEHYDE
b) Glucose (fischer projection )----- ALDEHYDE
c) Glucose ( Haworth projection )---- ALDEHYDE
d) N-acetylglucosamine ------ amine, aldehyde and alkyl groups
e) D-galacturonic acid ------ carboxylic acid or hydroxyl groups
ALDEHYDE AND 8) WRITE THE NAME AND STRUCTURES disaccharides or polysaccharides
a. lactose β (1 ----> 4)

b. Maltose α (1 ---> 4)

c. isomaltose α (1 ----> 6)

9. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING amino acid residues in a protein may be a potential link o-GLYCOSYLATION FOR ATTACHMENT OF A UNIT OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES? Serine and threonine

10.NOMBRA a functional group in proteins that can serve as sites

GLYCOSYLATION

The carboxyl group

11. WHAT IS THE NUMBER OF THE FOLLOWING CHIRAL CARBON monosaccharides. ASSUMING THAT THE NUMBERING SYSTEM IS USED. Glucose
--------------- 2, 3,4,5

Ribose ---------------- 2, 3, 4.5

Galactose ------------- 2, 3,4,5

-------------- 2 Fructose , 3.4

Pseudoheptulosa ----- 3, 4,5,6

12. THIS DEFINES THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP IN EACH OF THE CARBON ATOMS OF β-D-fructofuranose
a. C1-hydroxyl group b. C. C2-carboxyl group C3-hydroxyl group

13. A biomolecule NAMES BELONGING TO EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CLASSES:
A) monosaccharide glucose ------
B) disaccharide ---- Lactose
C) ---- starch polysaccharide
D) ------ homopolysaccharide cellulose
E) ----- heteropolysaccharide pectin
14. Mention the difference between starch and glycogen.
A) type of organism that synthesized it
starch - glycogen plants - animals
B) BIOLOGICAL ROLE PLAYED
starch - food reserve in plants
predominant glycogen - animal energy reserve
C) TYPE OF SUCROSE
starch - polysaccharide glycogen - polysaccharide
D) LINKS BETWEEN MONOSACCHARIDES
* starch - made up of thousands of glucose joined a union of 1-alpha-4, lays down prop walking around every 6 molecules of glucose and every 12 molecules presented by 1-alpha-6 * glycogen - more branched presents linear chains of 11 to 18 alpha-D- glucopyranose presenting a glycosidic bonds in alpha-1-4 with ramifications through glucocidicas unions in alpha-1-6
F) KIND OF BRANCH
* starch -

helix

* glycogen - linear

15. 5 MONOSACCHARIDES SAID THAT THEY ARE IN THE GLYCOPROTEINS

Galactose Glucose Mannose

N-acetylglucosamine N-acetylgalactosamine

16. BRIEFLY DESCRIBE 2 FUNCTIONS IMPORTANT
glycoprotein 1 .- The cell recognition when present at the surface of the plasma membrane.

2 .- Lubricant and protective antigenic

17 .- WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EACH PAIR OF COMPOUNDS LISTED?
a. D-glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone ---- derived from glycerin

b. D-glucose: D-fructose ----- same empirical formula but different structure.

c. D-glucose: D-mannose ------ the inversion of the C2 chiral center

d. D-triose: D-erythrose ----- have an aldehyde group and part of the family of aldoses e. D-2- Glucosamine: D-2-galactosamine ---- part of the monosaccharides

f. aD-glucose: B-D_glucosa ----- monosacardo are the same but with the ability to bind to another molecule differently

g. D-glucose: L-glucose are enantiomers

---------

h. D-glucose: D-galactose -------- The galactose into glucose in the liver as energy supply.

18.POR Glyceraldehyde AND DO NOT HAVE LINKS Eritrean cyclic hemiacetal HOW HAS THE RIBOSE ..
Because the number of carbons contained therein are not sufficient to make a cyclic hemiacetal link, and ribose does, perhaps just 5, 6th carbon is not involved in the form of the hemiacetal.

19. HAWORTH PROJECTION USED TO DRAW FORMULAS OF SIG. MONOSACCHARIDES:
A) α-D-mannose

B) α-D-glucose-6-phosphate

C) α-D-deoxyribose

20. Draw the structure of trehalose and mentioned if a reducing sugar. If reducing sugar because the OH of carbon is free 1st

21. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING compound is more soluble in water? 1-hexanol or D-glucose?

GLUCOSE
22. WHY IS CLASSIFIED AS GALACTOSE OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION ..
Because it is a reducing sugar and put into a Fehling reaction is redox is found that it reduces the other and it is oxidized.

23. WRITE THE REACTION OF THE FOLLOWING ACTIVATION OF ENZYMES ..

24. WHY mono-and disaccharides are soluble in water? Because its structure
have free or O-or a hydroxyl group and may form bridges hydrogen in the water ...

25. SUGGESTED TREATMENT FOR LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
the application of lactase, the milk after heat tolerance can help by reducing the presence of lactose by almost 100%

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carbohydrate hemiacetals

1.Enter a brief definition of these terms

@

polyunsaturated fatty acids:

The most common polyunsaturated fatty acids belong to the series n-6 and n-3, whose heads respective linoleic acid and linolenic acid. These two essential fatty acids, ie can not be synthesized in the body, and must be obtained from the diet. All other fatty acids in their series they can be obtained from them.

@ Micelle:

micelle is called the cluster of molecules which is one of the phases of the colloid . Is the mechanism by which the soap molecules solubilized insoluble in water and fat. @
lipid bilayer: The lipid bilayer is a structure formed by the coupling of various lipids amphipathic, ie they have a hydrophilic head (lipophobic pole) and tail lipophilic (hydrophobic pole), which when in an aqueous medium is spatially oriented , so that the hydrophilic heads are oriented outward (toward the aqueous medium) and the hydrophobic tails are directed inward, forming a lipophilic region.

@ Inositol:

Inositol is part of the vitamin B complex Is required for proper formation of the membranes cell.

@ Gangliosides:

glycosylated sphingolipids abundant in the ganglion cells of the central nervous system, particularly in the nerve endings, which contain sialic acid . 9 gangliosides are known, including the GM1, DG1A, GD1b and GT1b are in the cerebro.Los ganglioside receptors for various toxic agents such as tetanus toxin, cholera toxin and some virus.Varias lipid storage diseases are related to the catabolism of gangliosides ( Tay-Sachs disease or generalized gangliosidosis)

@ Tay-Sachs disease:

The Tay-Sachs disease occurs when the body lacks hexosaminidase A, a protein that helps break down a chemical found in nerve tissue called gangliosides. Without this protein, gangliosides, particularly ganglioside GM2 accumulate in the cells, especially nerve cells in the brain.

@ Atherosclerosis:

Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty deposits called plaque inside the walls arteries. As plaque builds up in the artery, it gradually narrows and becomes clogged. As more and more an artery is narrowed, less blood can pass. The artery can also become less elastic (this is called "hardening of the arteries.") Atherosclerosis is the main cause of a group of diseases called cardiovascular diseases - heart disease and blood vessels.

@ Isoprene:

Isoprene is produced naturally in animals and plants and is usually the more hydrocarbon found in the human body.

@ Eicosanoid:

In biochemistry, eicosanoids is the general name given to a group of molecules constitution lipid derivatives of omega-3 (ω-3) or omega-6 (ω-6), turn both fatty acids. Meet expanding role as mediators for the central nervous system , the events of the inflammation and immune response both vertebrates and invertebrates.

@ omega-3 fatty acids:

are polyunsaturated fatty acids found in high proportion in the tissues of certain fish , and some plant sources as flax seed , the hemp seeds and nuts .

@ Soap:

soap is usually the result of chemical reaction between alkali (usually sodium hydroxide or potassium ) and some fatty acid, this reaction is called saponification. The fatty acid may be, for example, lard or coconut oil. Soap is soluble in water, and detersive properties , commonly used for washing.

@ Triglycerides:

Triglycerides are the main type of fat carried by the body. Named after its chemical structure. After eating, the body digests food fats and releases triglycerides into the blood. They are transported around the body for energy or to be stored as fat.

@

Saturated fats:

formed by saturated fatty acids . Arise eg bacon in the fat and so forth. This type of fat is solid at room temperature. Those formed by fatty acids lauric , myristic and palmitic fats are more harmful to the body. However, based on the saturated fat stearic have a neutral effect. Examples: fats and shortenings.

@ Prostaglandins:

Prostaglandins are a group of substances belonging to fatty acids of 20 carbons ( eicosanoids), which contain a cyclopentane ring and form a family cellular mediators, with diverse effects, and often contrary.

@ fitoesteroides:

The phytosterols and triterpene compounds also have a recognized role like hormones, keep the tone and firmness, thereby effectively preventing its signosde aging.

@

Trans fatty acids:

trans fatty acids or trans fats are a type of fat found mainly in processed foods that have been subjected to hydrogenation as margarine or baking such as cakes others.Backward between trans fats not only increase the levels of harmful lipoproteins (LDL ) in the blood but decrease the protective lipoprotein (HDL ), causing increased risk of suffering cardiovascular diseases

@

partial hydrogenation:

Partial hydrogenation of polyunsaturated oils (which is the basis for manufacture of margarine) results in an enrichment of trans isomers thus more dangerous to a fat man.

@ Pheromones:

are substances that allow communication between individuals of the same species. The best-known roles include attracting pheromones partner in the breeding season and marking the territory. The pheromone receptors are in the vomeronasal organ, which is located in the nasal cavity. Inflammatory drug (NSAID) are chemicals with anti-inflammatory effect , analgesic and antipyretic , effects that are similar to those of steroids but not the secondary consequences. Act by blocking the synthesis of prostaglandins .

2.2

which of the following molecules are part of the family of lipids?

d) palmitic acid (chemical formula is CH3 (CH2) 14COOH. Is the main saturated fatty acid in the diet , constituting about 60% of them. It is the most abundant in meat and milk fat (butter , cheese and cream ) and the vegetable oils such as coconut oil and palm oil .

e) trimiristina ( is an ester, with the chemical formula C 45 H 86 O 6. is a saturated fat, which is the triglyceride myristic acid. ) Trimyristin is found naturally in vegetable fats and oils Many. And in the nutmeg

f) glycerol or propanotriol, or glycerin (C3H8O3) is a alcohol with three hydroxyl groups (OH), so that we can represent the molecule as , The propanotriol is one of the main digestive degradation products of lipid during the Krebs cycle . Is also produced as an intermediate in the alcoholic fermentation. The propanotriol, along with fatty acids, is a component of lipid simple:

m) formula is stigmasterol H48O Sterol C29 unsaturated vegetable origin found in soybean and bean Calabar. Is related chemically and biologically, with progesterone (* ).

3.Elaborar abbreviated nomenclature for each of the following fatty acids. The first problem is served as an example.

a) CH3 (CH2) 5CH = CH (CH2) 7COOH 16:1 Δ 9

b) CH3 (CH2) 5CH = CHCH2CH = CH (CH2) 4COOH 16:2 Δ6, 9

c) CH3 (CH2) 4CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CH (CH2) 3COOH 20:4 Δ 5, 8, 11, 14

4. draw the chemical structure for the following fatty acids. 10:1 Δ4 CH3 (CH2) 5CH = CH (CH2) 2COOH 18:2 Δ 9, 12 CH3 (CH2) 7CH = CH (CH2) 3CH = CH (CH2) 2COOH 18:3 Δ 9, 12, 15 CH3CH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CH (CH2)

5.Algunos scientists and doctors now recommend the intake of fish oil to reduce the risk of heart disease. Two major components of fatty acids in fish oil capsule are listed below. Draw the structures of these compounds. Eicosapentaenoic acid 20:5 Δ 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 CH3CH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH = CH (CH2) 3COOH docosahexaenoic acid 22:6 Δ4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 CH3CH2CH = CHCH2CH CHCH2CH CHCH2CH = = = = CHCH2CH CHCH2CH = CH (CH2) 2COOH

7.Explicar why soap solutions meet in aqueous micellar structures. In the formation of a soap micelle in water, molecules of soap (a salt of sodium or potassium of a fatty acid) are bound together by their hydrophobic ends corresponding to the hydrocarbon chains while the hydrophilic ends, those carrying carboxyl groups, negatively ionized by loss of an ion sodium or potassium, they repel each other. Thus non-polar chains of the soap is hidden from the water, while the carboxyl groups, negatively charged, they are exposed to it. Similarly, lipids polar disperse dilute aqueous solution forming micelles. In these hydrocarbon chains are hidden from the aqueous environment and form an internal hydrophobic phase, with hydrophilic groups exposed on the surface. These micelles may contain thousands of molecules of lipids and, therefore, its mass is very high.

8.How work bile salts to help digest fat?

9.Escribir a reaction or describe the action of each enzyme

a) LIPASE .- treacilgliceroles catalyzes the hydrolysis stored, freeing fatty acids which are exported to other places.

b) .- CYCLOOXYGENASES are responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins that regulate the secretion of gastric mucin, also synthesize prostaglandins that regulate pain, inflammation and fever.

c) LIPOOXIGENASA.-is involved in the metabolism of arachidonic acid and produces hydroxides (HETEs) and leukotrienes.

13.Por do some cooking oils such as canola oil and olive oil are arrancian before becoming solid? Most natural fat such as oils plants, are complex mixtures of simple and mixed triacylglycerols. The latter contain several fatty acids differ in chain length and degree of saturation. Vegetable oils are composed mostly of triacylglycerols with unsaturated fatty acids, which are liquid at room temperature. When fatty foods are exposed to oxygen for too long can damage air turning stale. The taste and odor associated with rancidity from the oxidative cleavage of the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids produces aldehydes and carboxylic acids shorter and therefore more volatile.

30. What are the molecules important for storage and energy metabolism?

A) THE TRIAGLICEROLES (triglycerides) AND Q ARE a separate phase of microscopic droplets in the cytosol AQUEOUS OILY SERVING AS A METABOLIC FUEL TANK

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Alopiranosa

Altropiranosa

glucopyranose

Mannopyranose

Gulopiranosa

Idopiranosa

galactopyranose

Talopiranosa

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disaccharides lipid

The disaccharides or double sugars are a type of carbohydrates, or carbohydrates, formed by the union of two monosaccharides same or different by O-glycosidic bond, mono-or dicarbonyl, which can also be α or β-OH according to the hemiacetal. The most common disaccharides are sucrose

• : Formed by the union of glucose and fructose. A sucrose is also called sugar. Lactose
• : Formed by the union of glucose and galactose. It is the milk sugar.
• maltose, isomaltose, trehalose, cellobiose: Formed by the union of all two glucoses, are different depending on the bond between the glucose.

The

sucrose is a disaccharide formed

by a molecule of glucose and one fructose.

Its chemical name is:

alpha-D-glucopyranosyl (1 -> 2)-beta-D-fructofuranose .

Its chemical formula is (C _{12 H 22 O} 11)

Lactose

is a disaccharide formed by the union of glucose and galactose. Lactose is also called milk sugar as it appears in the milk of female mammals at a rate of 4-5%. Camel milk, for example, is rich in lactose. Crystallizes with one molecule of water of hydration, so its formula is: C H 12 O _{22 11} · H 2 O, then it can also call lactose monohydrate. Its molecular weight is 360.32 g / mol

Maltose

is a disaccharide consisting of two glucoses joined by a glycosidic bond between the oxygen produced the first anomeric carbon (from - OH) of glucose and oxygen belonging to the fourth carbon of the other. Therefore, this compound also called alpha-glucopyranosyl (1-4) glucopyranose alpha

The isomaltose

The isomaltose is a double sugar (disaccharide ) formed by two glucose hydroxyl groups linked by carbon 1 in alpha position of one glucose and other carbon 6 of glucose. Thus this compound is also called alpha glucopyranosyl (1-6) glucopyranose beta . Upon binding is apparent that a water molecule and two glucoses are joined by oxygen monocarbonílico acting as a bridge. The isomaltose appears in grains germinated barley . Can be obtained by hydrolysis of starch and Glycogen. Its formula is C 12 _{H 22 O} 11.

Trehalose

is a double sugar (disaccharide), consisting of two glucose molecules where the glycosidic linkage involves the OH groups of the two anomeric carbon. Reducing glucose from two sweets get a nonreducing disaccharide with a low sweetness. On reaching the intestine the trehalose splits into glucose by the enzyme trehalase. The absence of this enzyme causes a disease called trehalose intolerance or intolerance to mushrooms.

is present naturally in mushrooms, fungi, and insect hemolymph. Is being obtained on an industrial scale starting from cereal starch, and is being used in foods for athletes and as a filler.

cellobiose

The cellobiose is a double sugar (disaccharide) formed by two glucose units linked by hydroxyl groups at carbon 1 beta position of glucose and carbon 4 of another glucose. Thus this compound is also called beta glucopyranosyl (1-4) glucopyranose. Upon binding is apparent that a water molecule and two glucoses are linked by an oxygen monocarbonílico that acts as a bridge. The cellobiose appears in the hydrolysis of cellulose. Its formula is C 12 _H 22 O ₁₁ .

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exercised Equation

If aspirin has a pK of 3.5 and Stomach pH is 1.5 and the intestine is 6, are where faster absorb aspirin, if charged and highly polar molecules pass slowly, while the hydrophobic and neutral go faster?

takes an equal amount of both kinds of 250mg. Stomach




[A ^- ] = 2.5mg

Bowel

[A ^- ] = 79,056.9 mg = 7.9x10 4


* is absorbed faster in the stomach to be less loaded because its absorption into the bloodstream is faster.

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Henderson-Hasselbalch equation Henderson-Hasselbalch

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution or buffer, from a pK (the acid dissociation constant) and the equilibrium concentrations of acid or base, acid or conjugate base.

Derivation

Suppose an acid AH with partial decoupling. The balance is:

and associated dissociation constant will be:

Solving [ _{H 3 O} +] of the constant Dissociation:

Taking logarithms on both sides and applying the property of logarithms to a product we get:

investing

E ratio:

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Acids and Bases

acids

According Arrhenius: An acid is a substance that releases ^{a H +} in an aqueous solution.
According Brönsted-Lowry: A chemical capable of release a proton in an aqueous medium.
According to Lewis: Accepts a pair of electrons and ^- .



Bases

According Arrhenius base is a substance that releases ^{an ion OH -} in an aqueous solution. According
Brönsted-Lowry: A chemical capable of receiving a proton in an aqueous medium.
According to Lewis: Donate a pair of electrons and ^- .

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Molarity, Molality and Normality

Molarity

The molarity (M ) is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. For example, if 0.5 moles of solute dissolved in 100 mL of dissolution, that has a solute concentration of 0.5 M (0.5 molar). To prepare a solution of this concentration is usually first dissolved solute in a smaller volume, eg 30 mL, and transferred this solution to a volumetric flask, then fill it with more solvent until 100 mL.

is the most common method of expressing chemical concentration especially when working with chemical reactions and stoichiometry. However, it has the disadvantage that the volume changes with temperature.

Molality

The molality (m ) is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. To prepare solutions of a given molality in a solvent, not a volumetric flask is used as in the case of the molarity, but can be done in a beaker and weighing with an analytical balance, weight empty glass before so that we can subtract the corresponding value.

The main advantage of this method of action on the molality is that as the volume of a solution depends on the temperature and pressure, when they change, the volume change with them. Because the molality is not a function of volume, is independent of temperature and pressure, and can be measured more accurately.

used is less than the molarity. Normality

The normal ( N ) is the number equivalents (n ) of solute ( st) per liter of solution (sc ).

Normal acid-base

is the normality of a solution when used for a reaction as an acid or base. For this usually titrated using pH indicators.

In this case, the equivalent can be expressed as follows:

for an acid or base for.

Where:

• n: the amount of equivalents.
• moles: the amount moles. H
• ⁺ : The number of protons given by one mole of acid. HO
• ^- : The amount of hydroxyl ceded by one mole of the base.

For this, we can say the following:

for an acid or base for.

Where:

• N: is the normality of the solution.
• M: is the molarity of the solution. H
• ⁺ : The number of protons given by one mole of acid. HO
• ^- : Amount transferred hydroxyl by a mole of the base.

Examples:

• 1 M solution of HCl yields 1 M + H , therefore, is equal to 1 N.
• A solution of 1 M Ca (OH) 2 yields HO 2 M ^- , therefore, is equal to 2 N.

In this case, the equivalent can be expressed as follows:

.

Where:

• n: the amount of equivalents.
• moles: the number of moles.
• and ^- : The number of electrons exchanged in the oxidation hemireacción or reduction.

For this, we can say the following:

.

Where:

• N: is the normality of the solution.
• M: is the molarity of the solution.
• and ^- : The number of electrons exchanged in the oxidation or reduction hemireacción.

Examples:

• In the following case we see that the nitrate anion in acid (eg nitric acid, can act as an oxidant, wherein a solution 1 M, 3 N _{ox is} .

4 ^{+ H} _{+ NO 3 -1} ^{+ 3 e - ↔} _{NO + 2 H 2 O}

• In the following case we see that the iodide anion may act as a reductant, where a solution 1 M, is 1 N rd.

2 I ^- - 2 e ^- I _{2 ↔}

• In the following case we see that the cation of silver, can act as an oxidant, where a 1 M solution is 1 N ox.

^{1 Ag + 1 e + -} ↔ Ag ⁰